兽研感谢我的导师，约翰·杰伊刑事司法学院（JJC）拉丁美洲与拉丁裔研究系（LLS）副教授、CUNY黑人男性倡议正义研究学者项目（RSJ）主任兼项目研究员Jodie G. Roure教授（法学博士、哲学博士），感谢她的指导，感谢她创建了一个激励我、支持我作为学者成长并让我得以发表成果的项目。特别感谢CUNY BMI研究团队主管Lorena Villavicencio和RSJ本科生研究学院助理Parsva Shah，感谢她们对我本科研究和发表过程的大力支持，也感谢LLS系的持续支持。我还感谢正义研究学者项目工作人员Anna Cepeda-Mays、Arpita Edke、Brandon Mathew、Christina Mitchell-Paris、Danielle Nwosa、Isabel Schroeder、Ishani Mehta、Joanna Marie Aguilar、Jonathan Beane、Josué González-Ortiz、Maria Guadarrama Flores、Mohammad Mustafa、Nicole Martinez和Zhen Deng的协助。本研究由纽约市议会通过CUNY黑人男性倡议提供资助，特别感谢CUNY黑人男性倡议大学主任Jonathan Quash博士的领导、持续支持以及为CUNY BMI学者创造机会的承诺。IPRPD《国际艺术、人文与社会科学杂志》ISSN 2693-2547（印刷版），2693-2555（在线版）第07卷；第10期：2026年10月DOI: 10.56734/ijahss.v7n10a4
人类生物文化演化：人与狗之间不断演变的关系Anani Beane 1 1 欧柏林学院与音乐学院摘要本文考察人类与狗的生物文化演化，探讨二者长期以来的关系如何影响了两个物种的生物学、认知、社会与文化发展。讨论从史前时期对祖先狼的驯化开始，重点阐述促成这一持久伙伴关系建立的互利因素。狗通过狩猎、运输、保护以及对多样环境的适应为人类生存作出贡献，而人类通过选择性繁育的干预塑造了犬类的行为、体格特征和专门功能。本文还探讨人与狗的关系在不同文化中的差异，尤其是性别角色、社会习俗和动物人格地位观念的影响。此外，本文还考察人与狗互动的潜在生物学和神经学维度，包括交流、行为同步以及与人类日益定居化社会相关的改变。通过考察考古证据、跨文化研究以及动物行为与演化研究，本文表明狗的驯化不仅仅是两个物种之间的一种实用安排，而是体现了一个相互适应与相互依存的复杂过程，这一过程深刻影响了人类历史，并持续塑造着当代人与动物之间的关系。关键词：人与狗协同演化；生物文化演化；狗的驯化；人与动物互动；选择性繁育
人类与其他动物的互动对于我们生物学、社会和文化的演化至关重要。例如，牛的驯化改变了世界各地人们对牛的认知，使其不再仅仅是肉和奶的来源，如今在许多文化中还具有宗教用途。我们对犬科动物的驯化范围广泛，例如对银狐的驯化，这种驯化使我们能够保护这些动物并帮助它们存活。此类动物互动也帮助人类延长了自身的生存。例如，我们对啮齿动物的实验及其基因改造有助于我们测试药物，这些药物已经治愈并可能继续治愈困扰人类的疾病或病症。无论如何，我们与Canis Lupus（灰狼）的演化关系比任何其他关系都更为广泛和独特。狗是人类最早驯化的生物之一，甚至早于农作物。从旧石器时代晚期开始，约公元前35,000年，基因组DNA表明狗的驯化起源于中东，那里同时居住着智人和尼安德特人。随着早期现代人类迁移到全球其他地区
第07卷 - 第10期/2026年10月 ©促进研究与政策发展研究所 DOI: 10.56734/ijahss.v7n10a4 39 | www.ijahss.net
例如在美洲和欧亚大陆， domesticated dogs came with and hence the domestication of the species expanded, creating many breeds and varying phenotypes. 由于选择性育种，狼变得专门化，因此成为Canis Lupus Familiaris，即灰狼的一个亚种。根据最近的研究，我们已经共同进化到这样一种程度：当我们彼此互动时，我们甚至会同步我们的大脑。(Lamontagne and Gaunet) 为什么我们与这种犬类的进化如此特殊，以至于我们的大脑发生了变化？人类与狗的共同进化和生物文化进化不仅重塑了犬类和人类生物学，还通过狩猎、相互生存和运输从根本上影响了人类文化。尽管灰狼有许多亲属，但Canis Lepophagus是灰狼与其他犬科动物最早的分化，发生在大约2300万至500万年前的欧亚大陆。(Perri et al.) 人与狗之间的这种伙伴关系是由于狼和人类都具有的自然竞争优势。大约五万年前，欧亚大陆的生存竞争十分严峻，但对智人来说却没有那么严峻，因为他们开始使用复杂工具。智人的饮食是灵活的，不像他们的大多数竞争对手，如猛犸象和剑齿虎，后者很快灭绝了。(“Who Let the Dogs in? - Claremont Review of Books”) 在此期间，狼也处于食物链顶端，而仅仅几千年后，驯化才开始。古生物学家对这种合作何时开始有不同的看法。可追溯到大约14200年前的遗骸显示，狗与2个人一起被发现于这个墓葬中。与狼相比，这些狗具有不同的特征，例如整体更小（15公斤，肩高0.45米）。线粒体DNA分析确认这些狗属于clade C类家犬。这些狗显然得到了妥善的埋葬，并且患有牙脓肿，这表明原始人照顾了这些动物，因为它们很可能无法独自生存。(Janssens et al.) 这一发现描绘了我们与改变人类文化发展本质之间的相互关系。狗给了人类优势。它们与人类一起能够长距离追踪以围困猎物，而人类则用矛和石头等工具将其杀死。借助这些武器和其他工具，人类能够更高效、更快速地获取肉类。这种相互纽带对那些能够融入的犬科动物是有益的。那些过于攻击性或狩猎效率太低的个体逐渐被从繁殖池中移除。这种早期选择性育种的过程最终导致了我们今天所拥有的现代狗，因此选择性育种模式随着人类文化的分化和繁荣而改变。早期驯化的狗还被用于运输，尤其是拉雪橇。狗拉雪橇由因纽特人和其他北极原住民族发明，历史上一直是人与动物之间互利的关系。人类用食物换取狗的劳动。狗拉雪橇的最早证据是一套完整的狗牵引装备，发现于加拿大西部北极地区，可追溯到公元前8000年，这表明狗拉雪橇也被用于连接北极文明。狗天生更好的嗅觉使人类在恶劣天气下前往文明地区时拥有更可靠的运输。(Harris et al.) 狗的驯化导致了其他动物的驯化，这有助于人类定居。这些有组织的人类定居点随后导致人类对猎物的感官和配偶的迫切需求下降。这意味着狗也间接导致了人类生物学的改变。当冰开始融化时，人类与其毛茸茸的伙伴一起适应了新环境。由此，狼的驯化开始出现差异。多种不同品种的狗随着不同的表型而出现。到冰完全融化时，人类利用了狗对其新环境的适应。体型更大、更高大、更笨重的狗有利于狩猎鹿或野猪等猎物。较小的狗对于狩猎兔子等小型猎物非常有用。然而，狩猎远不是狗的唯一用途。例如，像Border Collie这样的牧羊犬品种被培育出来帮助放羊。有趣的是，狗一直也能很好地适应它们的新气候。研究表明，狗在较温暖的气候中变得不那么“能量高效”，这意味着它们比寒冷气候中的狗更快耗尽能量。因为研究表明狩猎似乎改善了人与狗之间的关系，那么为什么在世界较温暖地区狗仍然被视为很好的宠物，这令人困惑？(Science Times, "Man's Best Friend No More")。事实上，答案可能在于女性与狗之间独特的 relationship。正如跨文化研究所表明的那样，女性似乎对人类与狗关系的发展产生了不可思议的影响。来自844多名民族志学者（文化人类学家）的数据研究了144个传统社会。华盛顿州立大学的博士Jaime Chambers发现，“如果狗与女性有特殊关系，人类更可能将狗视为一种人。它们更可能被纳入家庭生活，被视为感情的对象，一般来说，人们对它们更加重视”(Chambers et al. 414)。尽管狗在世界各地被类似地使用，但对它们的看法却不同。例如，在像纽约市这样的工业化地区，在Personhood量表上的看法可能较低，该量表用于定义它们对人类来说更像人的看法。然而，在更农村和欠发达的地区，让狗发挥“更大的作用”，比如为其人类狩猎，可能会使它们在其人民看来更像人。狩猎、运输和其他用途并不是狗驯化影响人类的唯一方式。事实上，由于驯化，人类大脑的变化方式与其他物种非常不同。当人类
International Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2693-2547 (Print), 2693-2555 (Online) 40 | 人类生物文化演化——人类与狗之间不断演变的关系：Anani Beane 等
建立了定居点，自然需要的适应性就更少。在这些定居点中，人类对狩猎和采集的依赖减少，而当他们狩猎时，会使用狗。因此，我们天生的感官能力不再那么被需要，像丘脑这样的脑区缩小了。（Groves 1-12）这种转变为进一步复杂的思维腾出了空间。原始人类的认知演化源于这种脑结构的变化。令人惊讶的是，一些野生特征保留了下来，这些特征常被认为对社会进步有害。几个例子是人类昼夜节律的变异。人类是群居动物，以群体方式活动；因此，警惕捕食者是必要的。不同的昼夜节律使早期人类的存活率提高，因为白天睡觉的人会在夜间保护部落免受夜行性捕食者的侵害，反之亦然。另一个例子是注意缺陷多动障碍，它在狩猎采集时代对原始人类很有用，因为它使反应时间更快、对变化的警觉性更高。（Sultan Lab Mental Health Informatics）尽管人类和狗是非常不同的物种，生物学也截然不同，但激素在我们与狗交流的方式中发挥了巨大作用。虽然狗无法理解人类的口头语言，但它们能够通过表情和手势与我们交流，这是灵长类交流中的一个常见特征。据湖北大学及遗传与发育生物学研究所教授张勇所说，“狗已经演化出通过行为、面部表情甚至语调来解读、理解并回应广泛的人类情绪状态和交流信号的能力，提供了其他家养动物或伴侣动物中不常见的非凡主动陪伴水平”。这项研究有趣的是，不仅揭示了人与狗之间的跨物种交流，还发现在此类互动中，狗更多扮演“追随者”，人类更多扮演“领导者”（Ren et al.）。这一发现表明，我们共同演化中的剧烈变化如何使人类与狗之间建立起经证实的生物学交流。人类与Canis Lupus（灰狼）共同演化关系的历史虽然非常神秘，却描绘了人类历史上最持久的伙伴关系之一。从中旧石器时代到旧石器时代晚期直至今日，很明显，我们的共存以及后来的关系因多种原因对两个物种都有益。智人的生存使我们得以在全球建立定居点。这使我们拥有高度差异化的文化并留下独特的实物证据。无论人类定居何处，人类骨骼和肌肉在身体上都发生了演化，以适应更为久坐的生活方式，这也与人类对狗的驯化间接相关，表明如果没有Canis Lupus的贡献，现代工业化社会很可能要到很久以后才会出现，甚至根本不会出现。尽管大多数狗是Canis Lupus的亲近后代，但它们在许多方面仍与家养动物不同。与假设相反，狗尽管不是其野生同类，却比狼更容易被唤醒，对周围环境也更警觉，而人类有深度快速眼动睡眠周期，这证明了狗在警告人类危险方面的用处，因为相比之下人类有深度睡眠周期。（Chambers et al. 414）我们建立互利关系的能力激发了一种联系，这种联系如今已不再需要传统意义上的功利性。导盲犬充当盲人的眼睛。情感支持犬帮助人们在公共场合调节情绪和潜在行为。狗为人类所做的可能超过人类驯化的所有其他物种。它们对我们让它们所经历的变化的适应力超过任何其他动物或植物，因为我们共处的时间超过了所有其他物种。这种持续的演化反映了人性的一個基本方面：我们独特的能力，能够跨越物种界限建立有意义的纽带，从而改变人类和参与的外部各方。也许比任何其他人类与动物的关系更能说明问题的是，我们与狗的共同演化揭示了我们的本性如何与更广泛的生物世界深深交织，挑战了人类例外论的简单观念，并表明我们的演化故事并非只属于我们自己。
引用文献
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38 | Thank you to my mentor, Prof. Jodie G. Roure, JD, PhD, Associate Professor, Director & Project Investigator of the CUNY Black Male Initiative Research Scholars of Justice Program (RSJ), Department of Latin American and Latinx Studies (LLS) at John Jay College of Criminal Justice (JJC), for her mentorship and for creating a program that inspired me, supported my growth as a scholar, and allowed me to publish. Special recognition goes to Lorena Villavicencio, Supervisor of BMI Research Teams @ CUNY, and Parsva Shah, College Assistant for Undergraduate Research for RSJ, for their dedicated support of my undergraduate research and publication process, and to the Department of LLS for its continued support. I also recognize Research Scholars of Justice staff Anna Cepeda-Mays, Arpita Edke, Brandon Mathew, Christina Mitchell-Paris, Danielle Nwosa, Isabel Schroeder, Ishani Mehta, Joanna Marie Aguilar, Jonathan Beane, Josué González-Ortiz, Maria Guadarrama Flores, Mohammad Mustafa, Nicole Martinez, and Zhen Deng for their assistance. Funding was made possible by the New York City Council through the CUNY Black Male Initiative, with special thanks to Dr. Jonathan Quash, University Director of the CUNY Black Male Initiative, for his leadership, continued support, and commitment to creating opportunities for CUNY BMI scholars. IPRPD International Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2693-2547 (Print), 2693-2555 (Online) Volume 07; Issue no 10: October 2026 DOI: 10.56734/ijahss.v7n10a4
HUMAN BIOCULTURAL EVOLUTION: THE EVOLVING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMANS AND DOGS Anani Beane 1 1 Oberlin College and Conservatory Abstract This paper examines the biocultural evolution of humans and dogs, exploring how their long-standing relationship has influenced the biological, cognitive, social, and cultural development of both species. Beginning with the domestication of ancestral wolves during prehistoric times, the discussion highlights the mutual benefits that facilitated the establishment of this enduring partnership. Dogs contributed to human survival through hunting, transportation, protection, and adaptation to diverse environments, while human intervention through selective breeding shaped canine behaviour, physical characteristics, and specialized functions. The paper also explores how the relationship between humans and dogs varies across cultures, particularly regarding the influence of gender roles, social practices, and perceptions of animal personhood. Furthermore, it considers the potential biological and neurological dimensions of human–dog interactions, including communication, behavioural synchronization, and changes associated with increasingly settled human societies. By examining archaeological evidence, cross-cultural research, and studies of animal behaviour and evolution, this paper demonstrates that dog domestication represents more than a practical arrangement between two species. Rather, it illustrates a complex process of mutual adaptation and interdependence that has profoundly influenced human history and continues to shape contemporary relationships between humans and animals. Keywords ：Human–dog coevolution; Biocultural evolution; Dog domestication; Human–animal interaction; Selective breeding
Interactions between humans and other animals have been essential in the evolution of our biology, society, and culture. For example, the domestication of cows has changed our perception of them around the world as more than a source of meat and milk and now serves religious purposes in many cultures. Our domestication of canids has been extensive, such as that of the silver fox, and this domestication has allowed us to protect these animals and help keep them alive. Such animal interactions have also helped humanity in prolonging our own survival. For instance, our experimentation on rodents and modifying their genes helps us test drugs that have cured and could continue to cure diseases or conditions that plague humanity. Regardless, our evolutionary relationship with the Canis Lupus is larger and more unique than any other. Dogs were one of the first organisms humans domesticated, even before that of crops. Starting in the upper paleolithic era, around 35,000 BC, genomic DNA suggests that dog domestication originated in the Middle East, where both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals resided. As early modern humans migrated to other parts of the globe
Vol. 07 - Issue: 10/October_2026 ©Institute for Promoting Research & Policy Development DOI: 10.56734/ijahss.v7n10a4 39 | www.ijahss.net
such as the Americas and Eurasia, domesticated dogs came with and hence the domestication of the species expanded, creating many breeds and varying phenotypes. Wolves became specialized due to selective breeding and as such became Canis Lupus Familiaris, a subspecies of grey wolves. We have coevolved to a point where we even, according to recent studies, synchronize our brains when we interact with each other. (Lamontagne and Gaunet) Why is our evolution with this canine so special that our brains changed? Human and dog coevolution and biocultural evolution reshaped not only canine and human biology, but fundamentally influenced human culture through hunting, mutual survival and transportation. Though there are many relatives to the grey wolf, the Canis Lepophagus was the first separation of grey wolves from other canids occurring around twenty-three to five million years ago in Eurasia. (Perri et al.) This partnership between man and dog was due to a natural competitive advantage both the wolf and humans had. The competition for survival in Eurasia around fifty thousand years ago was grim but not as much so for Homo Sapiens, who started to use complex tools. Homo Sapien diets were flexible unlike most of their competition such as wooly mammoths and saber tooth tigers, who quickly became extinct. (“Who Let the Dogs in? - Claremont Review of Books”) During this time, wolves were also part of the top of the food chain and only several thousand years later did domestication begin. Paleontologists have varied perspectives on when this collaboration began. Remains dating back to around 14200 years ago show dogs found at this burial with 2 humans. The dogs had varying characteristics compared to wolves, such as being smaller overall (15 kg and 0.45 m tall at the shoulder). Mitochondrial DNA analysis confirmed the dogs to be a clade C class domestic dog. The dogs were visibly given a proper burial and had dental abscesses, suggesting that the hominids cared for the animals, as they likely would not have survived on their own. (Janssens et al.) This finding depicts our mutual relationship with the essence of changing human cultural development. Dogs gave humans the upper hand. They, along with humans, were able to track long distances to corner prey which humans would finish off with tools such as spears and rocks. With these weapons and other tools, humans were able to gather meat more efficiently and quickly. This mutual bond was beneficial for the canids that were able to assimilate. Those who were too aggressive or too inefficient at hunting were slowly removed from the breeding pool. This process of early selective breeding eventually led to the modern dogs we have today, as such selective breeding patterns changed as human cultures diverged and bloomed. Early domesticated dogs were also used for transportation, especially sledding. Invented by the Innuit and other native Arctic peoples, dog sledding has historically been a mutually beneficial relationship between humans and animals. Humans exchanged food for the dogs' labor. The earliest evidence documented for dog sledding is a complete dog traction kit, found in the Western Canadian Arctic, dated to 8000 BC, which suggests that dog sledding was also used to connect Arctic civilizations. Dogs’ naturally better nasal senses gave humans more reliable transport during times of poor weather to get to civilization. (Harris et al.) The domestication of dogs led to the domestication of other animals, which assisted with human settlements. These organized human settlements then led to a decrease in human senses for prey and desperation for mates. This means that dogs also indirectly caused human biology to change. When the ice began to melt, humans adapted to new environments along with their furry companions. With this, the domestication of wolves began to vary. Multiple different breeds of dogs came into existence with varying phenotypes. By the time the ice completely melted, humans took advantage of dogs adapting to their new environments. Larger dogs with taller and more bulky builds were beneficial in hunting prey like deer or wild boars. Smaller dogs were very useful for hunting small game like rabbits. However, hunting was far from the only use for dogs. For instance, shepherd dogs breeds like the Border Collie were created to help with herding sheep. Interestingly, dogs have always adapted as well to their new climates. Studies have shown that dogs become less “energy efficient” in warmer climates, meaning they would be exhausted of their energy quicker than dogs in colder climates. Because studies show that hunting seems to improve the relationship between man and dog, it’s confusing why dogs are still perceived as great pets in the warmer regions of the world? (Science Times, "Man's Best Friend No More"). In fact, the answer may lie within the unique relationship women have had with dogs. As made clear by cross-cultural research, it seems likely that women had an incredible impact on the development of the human-dog relationship. Data from more than 844 ethnographers (cultural anthropologists) studied 144 traditional societies. Jaime Chambers, a Ph.D at Washington State University, found that “Humans were more likely to regard dogs as a type of person if the dogs had a special relationship with women. They were more likely to be included in family life, treated as subjects of affection, and generally, people had greater regard for them” (Chambers et al. 414). Though dogs are used similarly all over the world, the perception of them differs. For example, there may be a less elevated perception in the scale of Personhood, which is used to define their perception to humans as more human, in industrialized regions like New York City. However in locations that are more rural and less developed, having the dog serve a “greater purpose,” like hunting game for its humans, will likely make them seem more human to their people. Hunting, transportation, and other utilities are not the only ways that the domestication of dogs impacted humans. In fact, human brains changed in very different ways than other species due to domestication. When humans
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created settlements, naturally less adaptation was needed. Humans needed to rely less on hunting and gathering in these settlements and when they hunted, they used dogs. Due to this, our natural sensory abilities were no longer needed as much, and brain areas like the thalamus decreased. (Groves 1-12) This shift allowed room for more complex thinking. Cognitive evolution in hominids stemmed from this change in brain structure. Surprisingly, a few wild traits remained, which are often perceived as detrimental to the advancement of society. A few examples of this are the variations in circadian rhythms that humans have. Humans are social animals that work in groups; as such, being vigilant of predators is a necessity. Differing circadian rhythms allowed early humans to have increased survival rates, as those who slept during the day would defend their tribe during the night from nocturnal predators and vice versa. Another example is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, which was useful during the hunting-gathering era for hominids, as it allowed for fast reaction times and heightened awareness of change. (Sultan Lab Mental Health Informatics) Despite humans and dogs being very different species with very distinct biology, hormones played a huge role in how we communicate with dogs. Though dogs are unable to understand verbal human language, they are able to communicate with us through expressions and gestures, a common characteristic in primate communication. According to Yong Zhang, a professor at Hubei University and the Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, “Dogs have evolved to read, understand, and respond to a wide range of human emotional states and communicative signals through behaviors, facial expressions, and even vocal tones, offering an extraordinary level of active companionship that is not often seen in other domesticated or companion animals”. This study interestingly not only unearthed cross-species communication between humans and dogs but also found that during such interactions, dogs act more as “followers” and humans more as “leaders” (Ren et al.). This discovery has shown how dramatic changes in our coevolution allowed humans to have a confirmed biological communication with dogs. The history of humanity’s coevolutionary relationship with Canis Lupus, though very mysterious, depicts one of the most enduring partnerships in human history. From the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Era to the present day, it is very clear that our coexistence and later relationship became useful for several reasons to both species. The survival of Homo Sapiens led us to develop settlements across the globe. This allowed us to have highly differing cultures and have unique physical evidence. Human skeletons and muscles physically evolved to adapt to a more sedentary lifestyle regardless of where humans settled also being indirectly linked to humans domestication of dogs shows how modern industrialized societies would likely have not existed until way later if at all due to Canis Lupus’s contribution. Although most dogs are close descendants of Canis Lupus, they still differ in many ways unique to even domesticated animals. Dogs, despite not being their wild counterparts, contrary to assumption, are easier to wake than wolves and are more vigilant of their surroundings, whereas humans have deep REM cycles, proving dogs usefulness in warning humans of danger as in contrast humans have deep sleep cycles. (Chambers et al. 414) Our ability to forge a mutually beneficial relationship sparked a connection that now no longer requires utility within the traditional sense. Guide dogs serve as blind people's eyes. Emotional support dogs help people regulate their emotions and potential actions in public. Dogs have done more for humanity than potentially all other species humans have domesticated. Their resilience to the changes that we have exposed them to have been greater than any other animal or plant, as our time together has exceeded them all. This ongoing evolution reflects a fundamental aspect of human nature: our unique capacity to form meaningful bonds across species boundaries that transform both human and external parties involved. Perhaps more than any other human-animal relationship, our coevolution with dogs shines light on how deeply our humanity is intertwined with the broader biological world, challenging simplistic notions of human exceptionalism and demonstrating that our evolutionary story is not solely our own.
Works Cited
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